Last Updated on September 22, 2021 by LawEuro
Handbook on European non-discrimination law – Contents
| EU | Issues covered | CoE |
| TFEU, Art. 8 and Art. 157 | Sex | ECHR, Art. 2 (right to life), Art. 3 (prohibition of torture), Art. 14 (prohibition of discrimination)
ECtHR, Emel Boyraz v. Turkey, No. 61960/08, 2014 ECtHR, Konstantin Markin v. Russia [GC], 30078/06, 2012 ECtHR, Andrle v. the Czech Republic, No. 6268/08, 2011 ECtHR, Ünal Tekeli v. Turkey, No. 29865/96, 2004 |
| Charter of Fundamental Rights, | ||
| Art. 21 and 23 | ||
| Gender Equality Directive (recast) | ||
| (2006/54/EC) | ||
| Gender Goods and Services | ||
| Directive (2004/113/EC) | ||
| CJEU, C-222/14, Maïstrellis v. | ||
| Ypourgos Dikaiosynis, Diafaneias | ||
| kai Anthropinon Dikaiomaton, 2015 | ||
| CJEU, C-363/12, Z. v. A Government | ||
| department and The Board of | ||
| Management of a Community | ||
| School [GC], 2014 | ||
| CJEU, C-167/12, C. D. v. S. T. [GC], | ||
| 2014 | ||
| CJEU, C-427/11, Kenny v. Minister | ||
| for Justice, Equality and Law | ||
| Reform, Minister for Finance | ||
| and Commissioner of An Garda | ||
| Síochána, 2013 | ||
| CJEU, C-243/95, Hill and Stapleton | ||
| v. The Revenue Commissioners and | ||
| Department of Finance, 1998 | ||
| CJEU, C-43/75, Defrenne v. Sabena, | ||
| 1976 |
| Gender Goods and Services Directive (2004/113/EC), Art. 4 (1)
CJEU, C-423/04, Richards v. Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, 27 April 2006 CJEU, C-117/01, K.B. v. NHS Pensions Agency et Secretary of State for Health, 7 January 2004 |
Gender identity | ECHR, Art. 8 (right to respect for private and family life) and Art. 14 (prohibition of discrimination)
ECtHR, Y.Y. v. Turkey, 14793/08, 2015 ECtHR, Hämäläinen v. Finland [GC], No. 37359/09, 2014 |
| ECtHR, Van Kück v. Germany,
No. 35968/97, 2003 |
||
| Charter of Fundamental Rights, | Sexual | ECHR Art. 5, Art. 8 (right to respect for private and
family life), Art. 12 (right to marry), Art. 14 (prohibition of discrimination) ECtHR, Taddeucci and McCall v. Italy, No. 51362/09, 2016 ECtHR, O.M. v. Hungary, No. 9912/15, 2016 ECtHR, E.B. and Others v. Austria, Nos. 31913/07, 38357/07, 48098/07, 48777/07 and 48779/07, 2013 ECtHR, Schalk and Kopf v. Austria, No. 30141/04, 2010 ECtHR, E.B. v. France [GC], No. 43546/02, 2008 ECtHR, S.L. v. Austria, No. 45330/99, 2003 ECtHR, Karner v. Austria, No. 40016/98, 2003 ECSR, INTERIGHTS v. Croatia, No. 45/2007, 2009 |
| Art. 21 | orientation | |
| Employment Equality Directive | ||
| (2000/78/EC) | ||
| CJEU, C-528/13, Léger v. Ministre | ||
| des Affaires sociales, de la Santé | ||
| et des Droits des femmes and | ||
| Etablissement français du sang, | ||
| 2015 | ||
| CJEU, Joined cases C-148/13 | ||
| to C-150/13, A and Others v. | ||
| Staatssecretaris van Veiligheid en | ||
| Justitie [GC], 2014 | ||
| CJEU, Joined cases C-199/12, | ||
| C-200/12, C-201/12, X and Y, and | ||
| Z v. Minister voor Imigratie en | ||
| Asiel, 2013 | ||
| CJEU, C-81/12, Asociaţia Accept | ||
| v. Consiliul Naţional pentru | ||
| Combaterea Discriminării, 2013 |
| UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)
Employment Equality Directive (2000/78/EC) CJEU, C-363/12, Z. v. A Government department and The Board of |
Disability | ECHR, Art. 8 (right to respect for private and family
life), Art. 14 (prohibition of discrimination) ESC, Art. E ECtHR, Guberina v. Croatia, |
| Management of a Community School [GC], 2014
CJEU, C-354/13, FOA v. KL, 2014 |
No. 23682/13, 2016
ECtHR, Glor v. Switzerland, No. 13444/04, 2009 |
|
| CJEU, Joined cases C-335/11 and | ECtHR, Pretty v. the United | |
| C-337/11, HK Danmark, 2013 | Kingdom, No. 2346/02, 2002 | |
| ECtHR, Price v. the United | ||
| Kingdom, No. 33394/96, 2001 | ||
| ECSR, AEH v. France, Complaint | ||
| No. 81/2012, 2013 | ||
| Charter of Fundamental Rights,
Art. 21 |
Age | ECHR, Art. 5 (right to liberty and security), Art. 6 (right to fair trial) and Art. 8 (right to respect for private and family life)
ESC, Art. 1 (2), Art. 23 and Art. 24 ECtHR, D.G. v. Ireland, No. 39474/98, 2002 ECtHR, Schwizgebel v. Switzerland, No. 25762/07, 2010 ECtHR, V.v. the United Kingdom [GC], No. 24888/94, 1999 ECtHR, T. v. the United Kingdom [GC], No. 24724/94, 1999 ECtHR, Bouamar v. Belgium, No. 9106/80, 1988 ECSR, Fellesforbundet for Sjøfolk (FFFS) v. Norway, Complaint No. 74/2011, 2013 |
| Employment Equality Directive | ||
| (2000/78/EC) | ||
| CJEU, C-548/15, de Lange v. | ||
| Staatssecretaris van Financiën, | ||
| 2016 | ||
| CJEU, C-441/14, DI, acting on behalf | ||
| of Ajos A/S v. Estate of Karsten | ||
| Eigil Rasmussen [GC], C-441/14, | ||
| 2016 | ||
| CJEU, C-258/15, Salaberria Sorondo | ||
| v. Academia Vasca de Policía | ||
| y Emergencias [GC], 2016 | ||
| CJEU, Joined cases C-501/12 and | ||
| others, Specht v. Land Berlin and | ||
| Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 2014 | ||
| CJEU, C-416/13, Vital Pérez v. | ||
| Ayuntamiento de Oviedo, 2014 | ||
| CJEU, C-144/04, Mangold v. Helm | ||
| [GC], 2005 |
| Racial Equality Directive (2000/43/EC)
Council’s Framework Decision on combating racism and xenophobia CJEU, C-83/14, “CHEZ Razpredelenie Bulgaria” AD v. Komisia za zashtita ot diskriminatsia [GC], 2015 CJEU, C-54/07, Centrum voor gelijkheid van kansen en voor racismebestrijding v. Firma Feryn NV, 2008 |
Race, ethnicity, colour and membership of a national
minority |
ECHR, Art. 14 (prohibition of discrimination), Protocol No. 12, Art. 1 (General
prohibition of discrimination) ECtHR, Boacă and Others v. Romania, No. 40355/11, 2016 ECtHR, Biao v. Denmark [GC], 38590/10, 2016 ECtHR, Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina [GC], Nos. 27996/06 and 34836/06, 2009 |
| ECSR, ERRC v. Ireland,
No. 100/2013, 2015 |
||
| TFEU, Art. 18
Charter of Fundamental Rights, |
Nationality or national origin | Council of Europe’s Convention on Nationality
ECHR, Art. 3 (prohibition of torture), Art. 5 (right to liberty and security), Art. 8 (right to respect for private and family life), Protocol No. 4, Art. 3, Protocol No. 1, Art. 2 ECtHR, Dhahbi v. Italy, No. 17120/09, 2014 ECtHR, Rangelov v. Germany, No. 5123/07, 2012 ECtHR, Ponomaryovi v. Bulgaria, No. 5335/05, 2011 ECtHR, Andrejeva v. Latvia [GC], No. 55707/00, 2009 ECtHR, Zeïbek v. Greece, No. 46368/06, 2009 ECtHR, Anakomba Yula v. Belgium, No. 45413/07, 2009 ECtHR, Koua Poirrez v. France, No. 40892/98, 2003 ECtHR, C. v. Belgium, No. 21794/93, 1996 ECtHR, Moustaquim v. Belgium, No. 12313/86, 1991 |
| Art. 45 | ||
| Citizenship Directive 2004/38/EC | ||
| Council Directive concerning the | ||
| status of third-country nationals | ||
| who are long-term residents | ||
| (2003/109/EC) | ||
| CJEU, C-392/15, European | ||
| Commission v. Hungary, 2017 | ||
| CJEU, C-165/14, Alfredo Rendón | ||
| Marín v. Administración del Estado | ||
| [GC], 2016 | ||
| CJEU, C-571/10, Kamberaj v. IPES | ||
| [GC], 2012 | ||
| CJEU, C-508/10, European | ||
| Commission v. the Netherlands, | ||
| 2012 | ||
| CJEU, C-200/02, Chen v. Secretary | ||
| of State for the Home Department, | ||
| 2004 | ||
| CJEU, C-281/98, Angonese v. Cassa | ||
| di Risparmio di Bolzano SpA, 2000 | ||
| CJEU, Case 186/87, Cowan v. Trésor | ||
| public, 1989 |
| Charter of Fundamental Rights, Art. 10 and 21
CJEU, C-188/15, Bougnaoui and ADDH v. Micropole SA [GC], 2017 CJEU, C-157/15, Achbita and Centrum voor gelijkheid van kansen en voor racismebestrijding v. G4S Secure Solutions NV [GC], 2017 |
Religion or belief | ECHR, Art. 3 (prohibition of torture), Art. 8 (right to respect for private and family life),
Art. 9 (freedom of religion), Art. 10 (right to respect for private and family life), Protocol No. 1, Art. 2 (right to education) ECtHR, İzzettin Doğan and Others v. Turkey [GC], No. 62649/10, 2016 ECtHR, Ebrahimian v. France, No. 64846/11, 2015 ECtHR, S.A.S. v. France [GC], No. 43835/11, 2014 ECtHR, Eweida and Others v. the United Kingdom, Nos. 48420/10, 59842/10, 51671/10 and 36516/10, 2013 ECtHR, Vojnity v. Hungary, No. 29617/07, 2013 ECtHR, Milanović v. Serbia, No. 44614/07, 2010 ECtHR, O’Donoghue and Others v. the United Kingdom, No. 34848/07, 2010 ECtHR, Alujer Fernandez and Caballero García v. Spain (dec.), No. 53072/99, 2001 ECtHR, Cha’are Shalom Ve Tsedek v. France [GC], No. 27417/95, 2000 |
| Racial Equality Directive (2000/43/EC)
CJEU, C-317/14, European Commission v. Belgium, 2015 |
Language | Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities
ECHR, Art. 6 (3) and Art. 14 (prohibition of discrimination) ECtHR, Macalin Moxamed Sed Dahir v. Switzerland (dec.), No. 12209/10, 2015 ECtHR, Case ‘relating to certain aspects of the laws on the use of languages in education in Belgium’ v. Belgium, No. 1474/62 and others, 1968 |
| Charter of Fundamental Rights, Art. 21
CJEU, C-149/10, Chatzi v. Ypourgos Oikonomikon, 2010 |
Social origin, birth and property | ECHR, Art. 14 (prohibition of discrimination), Protocol No. 1, Art. 1 (Protection of property)
ECtHR, Wolter and Sarfert v. Germany, Nos. 59752/13 and 66277/13, 2017 ECtHR, Chassagnou and Others. v. France [GC], No. 25088/94 and others, 1999 |
| Charter of Fundamental Rights, Art. 21 | Political or other opinion | ECHR, Art. 3 (prohibition of torture), Art. 10 (right to
respect for private and family life), Art. 11 (freedom of assembly and association), Art. 14 (prohibition of discrimination) ECtHR, Redfearn v. the United Kingdom, No. 47335/06, 2012 ECtHR, Virabyan v. Armenia, No. 40094/05, 2012 |
| CJEU, C-406/15, Milkova
v. Izpalnitelen direktor na Agentsiata za privatizatsia i sledprivatizatsionen kontrol, 2017 |
Other status | ECHR, Art. 14 (prohibition of discrimination)
ESC, Art. E ECSR, Associazione Nazionale Giudici di Pace v. Italy, Complaint No. 102/2013, 2016 ECtHR, Varnas v. Lithuania, No. 42615/06, 2013 |
Key points
- The principle of non-discrimination does not prohibit all differences in treatment, but only those differences based on one of the protected grounds.
- Protected ground is an identifiable, objective or personal characteristic, or ‘status’, by which individuals or groups are distinguishable from one another.
- Under the EU non-discrimination directives, the protected grounds are expressly fixed to: sex, racial or ethnic origin, age, disability, religion or belief and sexual orientation.
- Under the ECHR there is an open-ended list which may be developed on a case-by- case basis.
Under EU law, the non-discrimination directives prohibit differential treatment based on certain ‘protected grounds’, containing a fixed and limited list of protected grounds. These grounds cover sex (Gender Goods and Services Directive (2004/113/EC)430, Gender Equality Directive (recast) (2006/54/EC)),431 sexual orientation, disability, age or religion or belief (Employment Equality Directive (2000/78/EC)432), and racial or ethnic origin (Racial Equality Directive (2000/43/EC)433). Article 21 of the EU Charter also contains a prohibition on discrimination, which contains a non-exhaustive list of grounds, implied by a formulation ‘such as’.434 The EU Charter binds the EU institutions, but it will also apply to the Member States when they are interpreting and applying EU law.
A ‘protected ground’ is a characteristic of an individual that should not be considered relevant to the differential treatment or enjoyment of a particular benefit.
Under the ECHR, Article 14 contains an open-ended list, which coincides with the directives, but goes beyond them. Article 14 states that there shall be no discrimination “on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status.” The category of ‘other status’ has allowed the ECtHR to include those grounds (among others) that are expressly protected by the non-discrimination directives, namely: disability, age and sexual orientation.
5. Protected grounds
5.6. Race, ethnicity, colour and membership of a national minority
5.7. Nationality or national origin
5.9. Social origin, birth and property
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